Авторы: Asme
Название: DRILLING FLUIDS PROCESSING HANDBOOK
Формат: PDF
Размер: 5, 37 Mb
Год издания: 2005
Contents:
Biographies xvii
Preface xxiii
1 Historical Perspective and Introduction
1.1 Scope
1.2 Purpose
1.3 Introduction
1.4 Historical Perspective
1.5 Comments
1.6 Waste Management
2 Drilling Fluids
2.1 Drilling Fluid Systems
2.1.1 Functions of Drilling Fluids
2.1.2 Types of Drilling Fluids
2.1.3 Drilling Fluid Selection
2.1.4 Separation of Drilled Solids from Drilling Fluids
2.2 Characterization of Solids in Drilling Fluids
2.2.1 Nature of Drilled Solids and Solid Additives
2.2.2 Physical Properties of Solids in Drilling Fluids
2.3 Properties of Drilling Fluids
2.3.1 Rheology
2.4 Hole Cleaning
2.4.1 Detection of Hole-Cleaning Problems
2.4.2 Drilling Elements That Affect Hole Cleaning
2.4.3 Filtration
2.4.4 Rate of Penetration
2.4.5 Shale Inhibition Potential/Wetting Characteristics
2.4.6 Lubricity
2.4.7 Corrosivity
2.4.8 Drilling-Fluid Stability and Maintenance
2.5 Drilling Fluid Products
2.5.1 Colloidal and Fine Solids
2.5.2 Macropolymers
2.5.3 Conventional Polymers
2.5.4 Surface-Active Materials
2.6 Health, Safety, and Environment and Waste Management
2.6.1 Handling Drilling Fluid Products and Cuttings
2.6.2 Drilling Fluid Product Compatibility and Storage Guidelines
2.6.3 Waste Management and Disposal References
3 Solids Calculation
3.1 Procedure for a More Accurate Low-Gravity Solids Determination
3.1.1 Sample Calculation
3.2 Determination of Volume Percentage of Low-Gravity Solids in Water-Based Drilling Fluid
3.3 Rig-Site Determination of Specific Gravity of Drilled Solids
4 Cut Points
4.1 How to Determine Cut Point Curves
4.2 Cut Point Data: Shale Shaker Example
5 Tank Arrangement
5.1 Active System
5.1.1 Suction and Testing Section
5.1.2 Additions Section
5.1.3 Removal Section
5.1.4 Piping and Equipment Arrangement
5.1.5 Equalization
5.1.6 Surface Tanks
5.1.7 Sand Traps
5.1.8 Degasser Suction and Discharge Pit
5.1.9 Desander Suction and Discharge Pits
5.1.10 Desilter Suction and Discharge Pits (Mud Cleaner/Conditioner)
5.1.11 Centrifuge Suction and Discharge Pits
5.2 Auxiliary Tank System
5.2.1 Trip Tank
5.3 Slug Tank
5.4 Reserve Tank(s)
6 Scalping Shakers and Gumbo Removal
7 Shale Shakers
7.1 How a Shale Shaker Screens Fluid
7.2 Shaker Description
7.3 Shale Shaker Limits
7.3.1 Fluid Rheological Properties
7.3.2 Fluid Surface Tension
7.3.3 Wire Wettability
7.3.4 Fluid Density
7.3.5 Solids: Type, Size, and Shape
7.3.6 Quantity of Solids
7.3.7 Hole Cleaning
7.4 Shaker Development Summary
7.5 Shale Shaker Design
7.5.1 Shape of Motion
7.5.2 Vibrating Systems
7.5.3 Screen Deck Design
7.5.4 g Factor
7.5.5 Power Systems
7.6 Selection of Shale Shakers
7.6.1 Selection of Shaker Screens
7.6.2 Cost of Removing Drilled Solids
7.6.3 Specific Factors
7.7 Cascade Systems
7.7.1 Separate Unit
7.7.2 Integral Unit with Multiple Vibratory Motions
7.7.3 Integral Unit with a Single Vibratory Motion
7.7.4 Cascade Systems Summary
7.8 Dryer Shakers
7.9 Shaker User’s Guide
7.9.1 Installation
7.9.2 Operation
7.9.3 Maintenance
7.9.4 Operating Guidelines
7.10 Screen Cloths
7.10.1 Common Screen Cloth Weaves
7.10.2 Revised API Designation System
7.10.3 Screen Identification
7.11 Factors Affecting Percentage-Separated Curves
7.11.1 Screen Blinding
7.11.2 Materials of Construction
7.11.3 Screen Panels
7.11.4 Hook-Strip Screens
7.11.5 Bonded Screens
7.11.6 Three-Dimensional Screening Surfaces
7.12 Non-Oilfield Drilling Uses of Shale Shakers
7.12.1 Microtunneling
7.12.2 River Crossing
7.12.3 Road Crossing
7.12.4 Fiber-Optic Cables
8 Settling Pits
8.1 Settling Rates
8.2 Comparison of Settling Rates of Barite and Low-Gravity Drilled Solids
8.3 Comments
8.4 Bypassing the Shale Shaker
9 Gas Busters, Separators, and Degassers
9.1 Introduction: General Comments on Gas Cutting
9.2 Shale Shakers and Gas Cutting
9.3 Desanders, Desilters, and Gas Cutting
9.4 Centrifuges and Gas Cutting
9.5 Basic Equipment for Handling Gas-Cut Mud
9.5.1 Gravity Separation
9.5.2 Centrifugal Separation
9.5.3 Impact, Baffle, or Spray Separation
9.5.4 Parallel-Plate and Thin-Film Separation
9.5.5 Vacuum Separation
9.6 Gas Busters
9.7 Separators
9.7.1 Atmospheric Separators
9.7.2 West Texas Separator
9.8 Pressurized Separators
9.8.1 Commercial Separator/Flare Systems
9.8.2 Pressurized, or Closed, Separators: Modified Production Separators
9.8.3 Combination System: Separator and Degasser
9.9 Degassers
9.9.1 Degasser Operations
9.9.2 Degasser Types
9.9.3 Pump Degassers or Atmospheric Degassers
9.9.4 Magna-VacTM Degasser
9.10 Points About Separators and Separation
References
10 Suspension, Agitation, and Mixing of Drilling Fluids
10.1 Basic Principles of Agitation Equipment
10.2 Mechanical Agitators
10.2.1 Impellers
10.2.2 Gearbox
10.2.3 Shafts
10.3 Equipment Sizing and Installation
10.3.1 Design Parameters
10.3.2 Compartment Shape
10.3.3 Tank and Compartment Dimensions
10.3.4 Tank Internals
10.3.5 Baffles
10.3.6 Sizing Agitators
10.3.7 Turnover Rate (TOR)
10.4 Mud Guns
10.4.1 High-Pressure Mud Guns
10.4.2 Low-Pressure Mud Guns
10.4.3 Mud Gun Placement
10.4.4 Sizing Mud Gun Systems
10.5 Pros and Cons of Agitation Equipment
10.5.1 Pros of Mechanical Agitators
10.5.2 Cons of Mechanical Agitators
10.5.3 Pros of Mud Guns
10.5.4 Cons of Mud Guns
10.6 Bernoulli’s Principle
10.6.1 Relationship of Pressure, Velocity, and Head
10.7 Mud Hoppers
10.7.1 Mud Hopper Installation and Operation
10.7.2 Mud Hopper Recommendations
10.7.3 Other Shearing Devices
10.8 Bulk Addition Systems
10.9 Tank/Pit Use
10.9.1 Removal
10.9.2 Addition
10.9.3 Suction
10.9.4 Reserve
10.9.5 Discharge
10.9.6 Trip Tank
References
11 Hydrocyclones
11.1 Discharge
11.2 Hydrocyclone Capacity
11.3 Hydrocyclone Tanks and Arrangements
11.3.1 Desanders
11.3.2 Desilters
11.3.3 Comparative Operation of Desanders and Desilters
11.3.4 Hydrocyclone Feed Header Problems
11.4 Median (D50) Cut Points
11.4.1 Stokes’ Law
11.5 Hydrocyclone Operating Tips
11.6 Installation
11.7 Conclusions
11.7.1 Errata
12 Mud Cleaners
12.1 History
12.2 Uses of Mud Cleaners
12.3 Non-Oilfield Use of Mud Cleaners
12.4 Location of Mud Cleaners in a Drilling-Fluid System
12.5 Operating Mud Cleaners
12.6 Estimating the Ratio of Low-Gravity Solids Volume and Barite Volume in Mud Cleaner Screen Discard
12.7 Performance
12.8 Mud Cleaner Economics
12.9 Accuracy Required for Specific Gravity of Solids
12.10 Accurate Solids Determination Needed to Properly Identify Mud Cleaner Performance
12.11 Heavy Drilling Fluids
13 Centrifuges
13.1 Decanting Centrifuges
13.1.1 Stokes’ Law and Drilling Fluids
13.1.2 Separation Curves and Cut Points
13.1.3 Drilling-Fluids Solids
13.2 The Effects of Drilled Solids and Colloidal Barite on Drilling Fluids
13.3 Centrifugal Solids Separation
13.3.1 Centrifuge Installation
13.3.2 Centrifuge Applications
13.3.3 The Use of Centrifuges with Unweighted Drilling Fluids
13.3.4 The Use of Centrifuges with Weighted Drilling Fluids
13.3.5 Running Centrifuges in Series
13.3.6 Centrifuging Drilling Fluids with Costly Liquid Phases
13.3.7 Flocculation Units
13.3.8 Centrifuging Hydrocyclone Underflows
13.3.9 Operating Reminders
13.3.10 Miscellaneous
13.4 Rotary Mud Separator
13.4.1 Problem 1
13.5 Solutions to the Questions in Problem 1
13.5.1 Question 1
13.5.2 Question 2
13.5.3 Question 3
13.5.4 Question 4
13.5.5 Question 5
13.5.6 Question 6
13.5.7 Question 7
13.5.8 Question 8
13.5.9 Question 9
13.5.10 Question 10
14 Use of the Capture Equation to Evaluate the Performance of Mechanical Separation Equipment Used to Process Drilling Fluids
14.1 Procedure
14.1.1 Collecting Data for the Capture Analysis
14.1.2 Laboratory Analysis
14.2 Applying the Capture Calculation
14.2.1 Case 1: Discarded Solids Report to Underflow
14.2.2 Case 2: Discarded Solids Report to Overflow
14.2.3 Characterizing Removed Solids
14.3 Use of Test Results
14.3.1 Specific Gravity
14.3.2 Particle Size
14.3.3 Economics
14.4 Collection and Use of Supplementary Information
15 Dilution
15.1 Effect of Porosity
15.2 Removal Efficiency
15.3 Reasons for Drilled-Solids Removal
15.4 Diluting as a Means for Controlling Drilled Solids
15.5 Effect of Solids Removal System Performance
15.6 Four Examples of the Effect of Solids Removal Equipment Efficiency
15.6.1 Example 1
15.6.2 Example 2
15.6.3 Example 3
15.6.4 Example 4
15.6.5 Clean Fluid Required to Maintain 4%vol Drilled Solids
15.7 Solids Removal Equipment Efficiency for Minimum Volume of Drilling Fluid to Dilute Drilled Solids
15.7.1 Equation Derivation
15.7.2 Discarded Solids
15.8 Optimum Solids Removal Equipment Efficiency (SREE)
15.9 Solids Removal Equipment Efficiency in an Unweighted Drilling Fluid from Field Data
15.9.1 Excess Drilling Fluid Built
15.10 Estimating Solids Removal Equipment Efficiency for a Weighted Drilling Fluid
15.10.1 Solution
15.10.2 Inaccuracy in Calculating Discard Volumes
15.11 Another Method of Calculating the Dilution Quantity
15.12 Appendix: American Petroleum Institute Method
15.12.1 Drilled Solids Removal Factor
15.12.2 Questions
15.13 A Real-Life Example
15.13.1 Exercise 1
15.13.2 Exercise 2
15.13.3 Exercise 3
15.13.4 Exercise 4
15.13.5 General Comments
16 Waste Management
16.1 Quantifying Drilling Waste
16.1.1 Example 1
16.1.2 Example 2
16.1.3 Example 3
16.1.4 Example 4
16.1.5 Example 5
16.1.6 Example 6
16.2 Nature of Drilling Waste
16.3 Minimizing Drilling Waste
16.3.1 Total Fluid Management
16.3.2 Environmental Impact Reduction
16.4 Offshore Disposal Options
16.4.1 Direct Discharge
16.4.2 Injection
16.4.3 Collection and Transport to Shore
16.4.4 Commercial Disposal
16.5 Onshore Disposal Options
16.5.1 Land Application
16.5.2 Burial
16.6 Treatment Techniques
16.6.1 Dewatering
16.6.2 Thermal Desorption
16.6.3 Solidification/Stabilization
16.7 Equipment Issues
16.7.1 Augers
16.7.2 Vacuums
16.7.3 Cuttings Boxes
16.7.4 Cuttings Dryers
References
17 The AC Induction Motor
17.1 Introduction to Electrical Theory
17.2 Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory
17.3 Electric Motors
17.3.1 Rotor Circuits
17.3.2 Stator Circuits
17.4 Transformers
17.5 Adjustable Speed Drives
17.6 Electric Motor Applications on Oil Rigs
17.6.1 Ratings
17.6.2 Energy Losses
17.6.3 Temperature Rise
17.6.4 Voltage
17.7 Ambient Temperature
17.8 Motor Installation and Troubleshooting
17.9 Electric Motor Standards
17.10 Enclosure and Frame Designations
17.10.1 Protection Classes Relating to Enclosures
17.11 Hazardous Locations
17.12 Motors for Hazardous Duty
17.13 European Community Directive 94/9/EC
17.14 Electric Motors for Shale Shakers
17.15 Electric Motors for Centrifuges
17.16 Electric Motors for Centrifugal Pumps
17.17 Study Questions
18 Centrifugal Pumps
18.1 Impeller
18.2 Casing
18.3 Sizing Centrifugal Pumps
18.3.1 Standard Definitions
18.3.2 Head Produces Flow
18.4 Reading Pump Curves
18.5 Centrifugal Pumps Accelerate Fluid
18.5.1 Cavitation
18.5.2 Entrained Air
18.6 Concentric vs Volute Casings
18.6.1 Friction Loss Tables
18.7 Centrifugal Pumps and Standard Drilling Equipment
18.7.1 Friction Loss and Elevation Considerations
18.8 Net Positive Suction Head
18.8.1 System Head Requirement (SHR) Worksheet
18.8.2 Affinity Laws
18.8.3 Friction Loss Formulas
18.9 Recommended Suction Pipe Configurations
18.9.1 Supercharging Mud Pumps
18.9.2 Series Operation
18.9.3 Parallel Operation
18.9.4 Duplicity
18.10 Standard Rules for Centrifugal Pumps
18.11 Exercises
18.11.1 Exercise 1
18.11.2 Exercise 2: System Head Requirement Worksheet
18.11.3 Exercise 3
18.11.4 Exercise 4
18.12 Appendix
18.12.1 Answers to Exercise 1
18.12.2 Answers to Exercise 2: System Head Requirement Worksheet
18.12.3 Answers to Exercise 3
18.12.4 Answers to Exercise 4
19 Solids Control in Underbalanced Drilling
19.1 Underbalanced Drilling Fundamentals
19.1.1 Underbalanced Drilling Methods
19.2 Air/Gas Drilling
19.2.1 Environmental Contamination
19.2.2 Drilling with Natural Gas
19.2.3 Sample Collection While Drilling with Air or Gas
19.2.4 Air or Gas Mist Drilling
19.3 Foam Drilling
19.3.1 Disposable Foam Systems
19.3.2 Recyclable Foam Systems
19.3.3 Sample Collection While Drilling with Foam
19.4 Liquid/Gas (Gaseated) Systems
19.5 Oil Systems, Nitrogen/Diesel Oil, Natural Gas/Oil
19.5.1 Sample Collection with Aerated Systems
19.6 Underbalanced Drilling with Conventional Drilling Fluids or Weighted Drilling Fluids
19.7 General Comments
19.7.1 Pressurized Closed Separator System
19.8 Possible Underbalanced Drilling Solids-Control Problems
19.8.1 Shale
19.8.2 Hydrogen Sulfide Gas
19.8.3 Excess Formation Water
19.8.4 Downhole Fires and Explosions
19.8.5 Very Small Air- or Gas-Drilled Cuttings
19.8.6 Gaseated or Aerated Fluid Surges
19.8.7 Foam Control
19.8.8 Corrosion Control
Suggested Reading
20 Smooth Operations
20.1 Derrickman’s Guidelines
20.1.1 Benefits of Good Drilled-Solids Separations
20.1.2 Tank and Equipment Arrangements
20.1.3 Shale Shakers
20.1.4 Things to Check When Going on Tour
20.1.5 Sand Trap
20.1.6 Degasser
20.1.7 Hydrocyclones
20.1.8 Hydrocyclone Troubleshooting
20.1.9 Mud Cleaners
20.1.10 Centrifuges
20.1.11 Piping to Materials Additions (Mixing) Section
20.2 Equipment Guidelines
20.2.1 Surface Systems
20.2.2 Centrifugal Pumps
20.3 Solids Management Checklist
20.3.1 Well Parameters/Deepwater Considerations
20.3.2 Drilling Program
20.3.3 Equipment Capability
20.3.4 Rig Design and Availability
20.3.5 Logistics
20.3.6 Environmental Issues
20.3.7 Economics
Appendix
Glossary